Rosh Hashanah 31: Yavneh vs Masada

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The Sanhedrin's first stop after leaving Jerusalem was the city of Yavne, which was established as a center of Torah study by Rabban Yohanan ben Zakkai and became most famous under the direction of Rabban Gamliel of Yavne.

Throughout its continuing travels, the Sanhedrin was headed by descendants of the family of Hillel. It appears that the Sanhedrin was moved to Usha in the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba Rebellion, where a series of Rabbinic enactments - called takkanot Usha - were established. Under the leadership of Rabbi Shimon ben Gamliel there was an unsuccessful attempt to return the Sanhedrin to Yavne, but due to the overwhelming devastation in the southern part of the country, they returned to the Galilee, first to Usha and then to Shefaram.

We examine the conflicting rabbinic myth of Yavneh judaism with the modern Israeli myth of Masada.

Rosh Hashanah 30: Levitical Singers

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Our Mishnah relates that on one occasion witnesses did not arrive to testify about the new moon until after the time of Minchah on Rosh Hashanah. As a result, the Leviyim did not recite the correct Shir when the afternoon Korban Tamid was offered. Because of that "Kilkul" the Rabanan instituted that Beis Din may never accept witnesses who come to testify about the new moon after the time of Minchah.

Why does the Mishnah say that the "Kilkul" was that the Leviyim recited the wrong Shir? Since the witnesses did not come until after the afternoon Korban Tamid was offered, there was a much more serious "Kilkul": the Korban Musaf of Rosh Hashanah could not be offered.

The afternoon Korban Tamid must be the last Korban of the day (Pesachim 58b), and since they already brought the Korban Tamid they could not bring the Korban Musaf. Consequently, not only did the late arrival of the witnesses result in the wrong Shir being recited, but it resulted in the inability to offer the entire Musaf offering of Rosh Hashanah. Why does the Mishnah not mention this "Kilkul"?

The RAMBAM (Hilchos Kidush ha'Chodesh 3:5) explains that the "Kilkul" indeed was that they did not offer the Korban Musaf. He makes no mention of the Shir.

We explore the history of Levitical singing and the scholarship regarding origins and the singing Levites in rabbinical literature.

Rosh Hashanah 29: RH vs. Shabbat

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We do not sound the shofar on Rosh HaShana that coincides with Shabbat. Our Daf teaches that this is only thecase outside of the Mikdash. In the Temple the shofar was blowneven on Shabbat. In searching for an explanation why the shofar is not sounded on Shabbat,our Gemara rejects the suggestion that this is a Biblical law based on thedifference between the pasuk in Bamidbar (29:1), whichcalls Rosh HaShana a day of teru'ah (i.e. blowing the shofar), and the pesukin Vayikra (23:24) that refers to it as a day of zikhron teru'ah(when we remember the blowing of the shofar), the former referring to a regularyear and the latter to Rosh HaShana falling on Shabbat.

We explore why Yavneh was an exception and how COVID and new technologies impact the halachot of communal davening and even Shofar via Zoom.

Rosh Hashanah 28: Forced By A Demon

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When performing a mitzva, what is really important? Must we simply carry out the act of the mitzva, or is it essential to have a level of intent - kavvana - for the mitzva? This is the issue discussed at some length on our daf, where a statement is presented to Shmuel's father - if someone is forced to eat matza on Pesah he is considered to have fulfilled the commandment. Why should that be true? Two possibilities are presented as to what forced the person to eat matza:

Kefa'o shade - literally means "he was forced by a demon"

Kefa'uhu Parsi'im - Persians (non-Jews) forced him to eat. We explore the demonic implications of whether a Mitzva requires intentionality and the impact of such external pressures to perform a Mitzvah.

Rosh Hashanah 27: Echoes of a Shofar

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What if someone blows a shofar into an echo-producing chamber, such as a pit, a cistern or a jug.

The mishnah rules that in order to fulfill his obligation he must be sure that he heard the sound of the shofar and not the echo of the sound of the shofar.

There is a geonic commentary on this mishnah, according to which the mishnah refers to a time of persecution when the Romans outlawed the public observance of commandments. They hid their shofar blasts to avoid the authorities.

We present a similar use of the shofar in modern Palestine under the British mandate, where a young Chabad Chalutznik was imprisoned for blowing the shofar at the kotel.

Rosh Hashanah 26: Shofar Hechshers

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The Mishna teaches us that all shofaros can be used on Rosh Hashanah except for one that comes from a cow, since a cow has a keren - horn - rather than a shofar. Rabbi Yosi permits the use of a cow's horn, arguing that all shofaros are referred to as keren.

Although the Mishna very specifically teaches the reasoning behind the two opinions on the use of the horn of a cow, two Amoraim nevertheless suggest alternative explanations for the disagreement. Abaye says that the basic position in the Mishna stems from the Biblical requirement of a single shofar - not two or three shofaros.

The horn of a cow is made up of several layers, so it cannot be used (Rabbi Yosi argues that we see the layers as making up a single shofar). Ulla suggests that the basic position of the Mishna is based on the rule ein kategor na'aseh sanegor - a prosecuting attorney cannot become a defense attorney.

Just like the High Priest cannot wear his gold garments into the Holy of Holies when performing the Yom Kippur service, similarly the horn of a cow cannot be used to call out in defense of the Jewish People. Rashi explains that the cow invokes the Golden Calf and therefore is considered a member of the prosecution. In general, gold is seen as representing vanity and a desire for material wealth, which do not seem appropriate for prayers of forgiveness.

Rosh Hashanah 25: גוחאדז"ט "Goodnight Moon"!

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Although this is the first mishnah of a new chapter, it is really the last mishnah to deal with the sanctification of the new month. It contains a few final rules governing how the court decides that the new month should be declared.

If the court and all of Israel saw it, if the witnesses were examined and there was no time left to say “Sanctified” before it grew dark, then the month is impregnated (it has thirty.

In this case, it was abundantly clear that the new month had arrived, but the court was not able to convene and sanctify it before it grew dark and the thirtieth day of the previous month was over. The mishnah rules that since the court did not have time to declare the new month sanctified, it is not sanctified and Rosh Chodesh will have to wait for the next day. We should note that again we see here the ideology that the court, that is humans, are what create the reality of the new month, and not the astronomical phenomenon itself.

We return to that moment that occurred over in Hebrew year 4119 (358/9 CE), considered by many to be the inauguration by Hillel II (Hillel ben R’ Yehuda) of the Fixed Hebrew Calendar, in use to this day and the work of Richarf Fielder in reconstructing the astronomical skies of that day.

Rosh Hashanah 24: Aniconism

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The Mishna relates that Rabban Gamliel had models of the moon in various positions in his study, which he would show to the people coming to testify.

The Gemara questions how Rabban Gamliel was allowed to fashion these devices, when the baraita interprets the passage (Shemot 20:20) that forbids the creation of idols and graven images to refer specifically to heavenly objects like the sun, moon, stars and constellations.

The answer offered by the Gemara is a difficult one – that Rabban Gamliel did not make the models himself; they were made by others. Tosafot and other rishonim argue that it is forbidden for Jews to have non-Jews perform tasks for them that are Biblically forbidden, which would seem to be the case here. A number of explanations are offered:

We explore the cultural and historical notions of aniconism and the struggle with religious imagery and depictions of the divine in other traditions.

Rosh Hashanah 23: Harvesting Coral

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The Mishna says that they brought beams of erez – cedar for the torches used for the bonfire. Rav Yehudah says there are four types of erez tree: erez, katrom, oil tree, and brosh. The Gemora cites three possibilities for the katrom tree: Rav says it is idra, Rabbi Shaila's bais medrash taught it is mavliga, while some say it is gulmish.

When Rav Dimi came, he said that three more species were added later: alon, almon, and almug trees, which are, respectively, botmim, balutim, kesisa- coral or coral wood.

Apropos the daf cites a relevant verse from Isa 33:21

כא כִּי אִם-שָׁם אַדִּיר יְהוָה, לָנוּ, מְקוֹם-נְהָרִים יְאֹרִים, רַחֲבֵי יָדָיִם; בַּל-תֵּלֶךְ בּוֹ אֳנִי-שַׁיִט, וְצִי אַדִּיר לֹא יַעַבְרֶנּוּ.

21 But there the LORD will be with us in majesty, in a place of broad rivers and streams; wherein shall go no galley with oars, neither shall gallant ship pass thereby.

What is this tzi adir? Rav said: This is a great ship [burnei] used to collect coral from the sea. Rashi identifies this as a dromon ship...from Greek δρόμων, dromōn, "runner")

We explore these ancient ships that harvested coral and the uses and abuses of this precious life form.

Rosh Hashanah 22: Witness Invalidation

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Our daf also quotes in full a Mishnah that appears in Massechet Sanhedrin (24b) that lists people who will not be accepted as witnesses in a Jewish court, because they are involved in monetary shenanigans that are forbidden by the Sages.

These people include dice players, money lenders who take interest, people who gamble on pigeon races, and those who market produce from the Sabbatical year.

We explore the Halachic legal system of courts with reference to modern Israeli judicial system,

Then meditate on Kafka's deconstruction of the modern state and its use and abuse of power through the courts.

Rosh Hashanah 21: The Elusive 50th Gate

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When the Temple stood, it was essential for the kohanim in the Mikdash to know whether the new month began on the 30th day or the 31st day after the previous Rosh Chodesh, so that they would know when they had to bring the special Mussaf sacrifice for Rosh Chodesh. This was so important that the Sages taught that it would be permissible for witnesses who saw the new moon to travel to the Temple to testify even if it was Shabbat and their travel would involve chillul Shabbat.

After the destruction of the Temple, Rabban Yochanan ben Zakkai ruled that this chillul Shabbat should only be limited to situations when it served an essential purpose.

Without the Temple sacrifices, it was deemed essential only for the months of Nissan and Tishrei, when it was necessary to establish the date of the holidays of Pesach, Yom Kippur and Sukkot.In the next Mishnah we are told of The rabbis go on to discuss Kohelet, King Solomon, who strived to be like Moses. He was the leader who decided that two witnesses were required to put someone to death. One witness was not enough to justify such a severe punishment.

Leaders must be lonely. They are surrounded by people who want to keep them happy. To find role models, they have to look to those who have been successful leaders in the past. Moses is the consummate leader; an obvious choice for King Solomon. But how would a king decide how to adapt that leadership model to his own reign? If Moses was not allowed to have the wisdom of G-d "the fiftieth gate", how should King Solomon use that information to become a better leader?

Just like Moses did not have this (50th Gate of ) wisdom of G-d, neither could one witness have reliable enough information to justify someone's death.

We explore this idea of the 50th gate of wisdom and its Kabbalistic intonations.

Rosh Hashanah 20: Dark Side of the Moon

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The Jewish calendar today is set based on calculations made by Hillel II in the time of the Gemara. Each month has either 29 or 30 days, so that over time, the months will stay in sync with the moon. As we have learned, during Talmudic times, the new month was based on testimony received from witnesses who saw the new moon, although the Sages who declared the new month had a fair amount of latitude to choose to postpone the announcement if they felt it necessary for one reason or another.

Rabbeinu Chananel and the Geonim point out that a decision on establishing the new month was dependent on a number of issues, some of which were well known, but others were known only to a small group of Sages who participated in sod ha-ibur – the closed assembly that actually made the final decision on this matter.

We explore the history of the lunar calendar from inner biblical analysis with Prof Sacha Stern to an astronomical historical comparison with other intercalating traditions by Prof Ari Belenkiy.

Rosh Hashanah 19: Megillat Ta'anit

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Megilat Ta’anit is a little known collection of statements about minor holidays and fasts that commemorate events which took place during the Second Temple period. On the minor holidays, fasting and eulogies were forbidden. Most of the events that are commemorated are from the period of the Hasmonean monarchy – a prime example being the story of Hanukkah – although there are also events from earlier and later periods included, as well.

The discussion in our daf revolves around the question of whether the commemorative days that appear in Megillat Ta’anit are still significant, or whether batlah Megilat Ta’anit – it has become null and void.

We explore the scholarly works investigating this ancient text first published in Mantua 1514.

Rosh Hashanah 18: Judging The Tzibur (Covid)

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In answer to the question posed by our daf as to how the same day can be both a day of fasting and a day of joy, Rav Papa explains that there are three possible scenarios that exist, which depend on the situation of the Jewish people in the world.

If there is shalom – peace – then these are days of celebration and happiness

If there is shemad (or, according to some readings gezerat malkhut) – oppression – then these are days of fasting

If there is neither shalom nor shemad, then it is up to the people to decide whether or not they will fast.

There is discussion about private vs communal judgment which leads us to examine the theological ramifications of communal suffering such as in a pandemic.

Rosh Hashanah 17: The Sinners of Israel

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Most of our daf deals with issues of teshuva (repentance) and kappara (forgiveness). We find Rabbi Yochanan introducing the 13 attributes of mercy presented by God to Moshe on Mount Sinai following the sin of the Golden Calf (Ex 34:6) as a formula taught by God that guarantees forgiveness.

A braisa is cited regarding the judgments of two different types of sinful people. Those that sin with their body will go down to Gehinom and will be punished there for twelve months. After twelve months, their body is destroyed, their souls get burned and a wind scatters their remains under the feet of the righteous.

One who has more transgressions than mitzvos and has committed a sin that is in the category of the rebellious sins will not have any cure. One who has precisely the same amount of transgressions as mitzvos, and included in his transgressions is a sin that is in the category of the rebellious sins, must be judged in Gehinom for a short time.

We explore sin and forgiveness from theological, psychological and hassidic perspectives.

Rosh Hashanah 16: Confusing The Satan

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The Gemara earlier (10b) quotes the dispute between Rebbi Eliezer and Rebbi Yehoshua with regard to whether the world was created on the first of Tishrei (the day on which Adam ha'Rishon was created) or whether it was created on the first of Nisan. If the world was created (and Adam ha'Rishon was granted atonement for his sin) on the first of Tishrei as Rebbi Eliezer maintains, it is clear why the inhabitants of the world are called to task on that day every year (see Vayikra Rabah 29:1). However, if the world was created in Nisan as Rebbi Yehoshua maintains, then why was the first of Tishrei designated as the Day of Judgment for the year's deeds?

One of the most enigmatic reasons given for blowing the shofar is to confuse the Satan. How foolish can Soton benot to realize after thousands of years that the preliminary sounding of the shofar is only a ruse?

We struggle with a number of interpretations.

Rosh Hashanah 15: RH For Etrogim

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As we have learned on the previous dapim, there are several different dates on the calendar that distinguish one agricultural year from another. This is significant in establishing when tithes are taken, since every individual year’s harvest must have terumot and ma’asrot taken separately.

We have seen that the Mishnah (2a) teaches that the first day of Tishrei is the date of the new year for vegetables, while the new year for fruits begins in Shevat when most of the year’s rains have already fallen.

Our daf ends the rabbis' debates regarding our last Mishna on the many different New Years. Their discussions have allowed us to better understand halachot surrounding planting ,harvesting, tithing, and how we work with anomalies like the Sabbatical year and plants that take three years to produce ripe fruit.

The etrog continues to be used to elucidate our rabbis' arguments.

As it produces valuable fruit and it is a short tree; because it grows a fruit used for ritual purposes, the rabbis use this tree to explain their dilemmas. One of these regards tithing: if a fruit is planted or begins to grow in the sixth year of the sabbatical cycle and then it is ripe in the seventh year, can it be used and tithed in the seventh year? What if it grows through the seventh year but ripens in the eighth? These questions allow our rrabbis to discuss some of the particularities of the Sabbatical year and of tithing.

Rav Yannaii's inquiry as to whether Tu Bishvat occurs during the (season) lunar or (month) solar cycle allows us to explore further a fundamental cosmic difference and ambiguity of this festival and its halachic impact.

Rosh Hashanah 14: Arbor Day

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The Mishnah (2a) states that the Rosh Hashanah for trees is the first of Shevat according to Beis Shamai, and the fifteenth of Shevat according to Beis Hillel. The Gemara seeks a source for Shevat as the new year for trees, and it answers that since most of the rain of the year has already fallen by this time it is considered the end of the year for trees. Even though the winter season is not yet over and more rain may still fall, since a majority of the winter season has passed this date is considered the end of the year for trees.

The Gemara's intention is unclear. It is true that once most of the year's rain has fallen the trees begin to blossom. Why, though, does that render Shevat the Rosh Hashanah for trees? Why does the time of blossoming determine the date of the new year for trees?

The Gemora cites an incident with Rabbi Akiva that he picked esrogim from a tree on the first of Shevat. He separated ma’aser sheini as if it was the second year of the Shemitah cycle and he also separated ma’aser oni as if it was the third year of the Shemitah cycle. Rabbi Akiva was being strict regarding the halachos of separating ma’aser from the fruits of the tree. The commentators ask that separating ma’aser from fruits is only Rabbinic and the principle is that when there is a doubt on a Rabbinic law, one has a right to be lenient. Why did Rabbi Akiva choose to be strict?

We continue our exploration into the ecological implications of tree preservation.

Rosh Hashanah 13: The First Omer Offering

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Our Daf states that the Jewish people brought the Korban ha'Omer as soon as they entered Eretz Yisrael. The Gemara questions how they were able to grow grain for the Korban in such a short amount of time. From the time they entered the land until the time of the Korban ha'Omer was a period of just five days.

They could not have bought the barley from the inhabitants of the land, because the Korban ha'Omer must be brought from barley that ripened in the possession of Jews.

The Gemara proves from here that barley is able to ripen within a very short amount of time, the amount of time that passed from when the Jews entered Eretz Yisrael and became field-owners until the time they harvested the barley for the Omer five days later.

We explore the Mitzvah of Omer offering and its relationship to Sefiras Ha'Omer.

Rosh Hashanah 12: Boiling Waters

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The Gemara asks further: Granted, according to Rabbi Yehoshua, who holds that the flood began in the month of Iyyar, this is what it means that He changed the acts of Creation with a flood, as rain does not usually fall in Iyyar. But according to Rabbi Eliezer, who holds that the flood began in Marḥeshvan, what did He change?

Rav Ḥisda said: They sinned with boiling heat, and they were punished with boiling heat; they sinned with the boiling heat of the sin of forbidden sexual relations, and they were punished with the boiling heat of scalding waters. This is derived from a verbal analogy. It is written here, with regard to the flood: “And the waters abated” (Genesis 8:1), and it is written elsewhere, with regard to King Ahasuerus: “And the heated anger of the king abated” (Esther 7:10), which implies that the word “abated” means cooled. This indicates that at first the waters of the flood had been scalding hot.

We explore the traditions surrounding the flood and the boiling waters...